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Proto-Indo-European pronouns
Proto-Indo-European pronouns have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses the Late Indo-European forms, while also discussing the reconstructed PIE proper pronouns. PIE pronouns, especially demonstrative pronouns, are difficult to reconstruct because of their variety in later languages. Grammatical categories PIE pronouns inflected for case and number, and partly for gender. Personal Pronouns Pronouns are used as nouns or as adjectives. They are divided into the following seven classes: 1. Personal pronouns: as, egṓ, I. 2. Demonstrative pronouns: as, so, this, that.Reflexive pronouns: as, se/'swe', himself. 3. Anaphoric pronouns: as, is, he. 4. Relative pronouns: as, yos, who. 5. Possessive pronouns: as, ṇserós, our. 6. Interrogative pronouns: as, qis? who? 7. Indefinite pronouns: as, qis, anyone. Like adjectives, pronouns are declined for case and number and – except for the personal and reflexive pronouns – for gender. Pronouns have a special declension, differing from the nominal declension in several respects. The personal pronouns of the first person are egō, I, weyes, we; of the second person, tū, thou, juwes, you. The personal pronouns of the third person -he, she, it, they - are wanting in Indo-European, an anaphoric (or even a demonstrative) being used instead. Late Indo-European had no personal pronouns for the third person, like most of the early dialects attested. For that purpose, a demonstrative was used instead; as, from ki, id, cf. Anatolian ki, Gmc. khi-, Lat. cis-, id, Gk. ekeinos, Lith. sis, O.C.S. si, etc. Since every finite verb form automatically indicates the ‘person’ of the verb, the nominal pronoun forms are already adequately marked. Therefore, pronouns are not generally used in verbal sentences; they might be used to mark insistence, though: esmi, I am; egō esmi, me, I am. In comparison with the orthotonic forms, often strengthened by particles, the special enclitic forms feature the minimal word stem and may be used in multiple cases. Tonic forms are fully stressed (emphatic or contrastive), while enclitic are unstressed clitic object pronouns; these are clearly attested in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Balto-Slavic and Tocharian. They are mostly reduced versions of the full forms, and it is a common resource write them added to the preceding verb, cf. Hitt. -mu, O.Lith. -m(i). The personal (non-reflexive) pronouns are declined as follows: 1) For 1st P. Nom. eghóm (<*egh2-óm), emphatic from egṓ (<*eg-óh2), cf. O.Ind. ahám, Av. azəm, Hom.Gk. εγων, Ven. ehom. 2) Enclitics moi, mei, and t(w)oi, t(w)ei, are found in genitive, dative and locative, but they are deliberately specialised in this table. 3) 1st sg. dative is often found reconstructed as mebhi/mebhei, following the 2nd pl. tebhei/tebhi. 4) -es endings in nom. pl., ṇsmés, (j)usmés (<*juswés?) attested in Att.-Ion. Greek and Gothic. 5) An older ju(s)wes is probably behind the generally reconstructed nominative *jūHs? based on Balto-Slavic (and Germanic) forms, which would therefore be a contraction of the original form (cf. Skt. yū-yám, Gk. u-meis, Lat. uōs, Cel. s-wīs, Goth. iz-wis<*uz-wes?) 6) Zero-grade forms in jus- are also found as us- (from wes-? cf. Goth. izwis<*uswes?). 7) Possibly accusatives jusmé<*jusmēn<**jusmens, and ṇsmé<*ṇsmēn<**ṇsmens. 8) Probably acc. pl. **nos-m-s→nōns and **wos-m-s→wōns. 8) Gen. n som, w som, is also attested. 9) Osc.-Umb., O.Ind. variant (orthotonic) series of Acc. Sg. in -m, as mēm(e), twēm, tewem, usóm, s(w)ēm. 10) Dual forms (in *-h1) are for the 1st nom. wē, acc. tonic ṇwé, enclitic nō; for the 2nd jū, acc. tonic ūwé, enclitic wō. Demonstrative pronouns The function of demonstrative pronouns, deixis, includes an indication of position in relation to the person speaking. It is possible to express a maximum of four (generally three) different degrees of distance; as, I-deixis (here, near the speaker), thou-deixis (there, near the person addressed), that-deixis (there, without a particular spatial reference), yonder-deixis (yonder, over there). The demonstrative pronouns so, this, that, and is, this one, that one, “the (just named)”, are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns, as adjectives, or alone, as pronouns, and are declined as follows: so, sā, tod, this, that Variants are observed in the attested dialects: 1) Nom. so (before all consonants) is also found as sos in Old Indian, Greek and Gothic (in all other circumstances), and as se in Latin (cf. Lat. ipse). 2) Nom. sā is found as sja/sī in Germanic and Celtic. 3) Nom. Pl. tāi is general, while sāi is restricted to some dialects, as Attic-Ionic Greek, possibly from original fem. *''tā'' and masc. *''to'' (Meier-Brügger 2003). However, linguists like Beekes (1995) or Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) reconstruct the nominative form in sas the original Proto-Indo-European form. 4) Forms in tes- for the feminine singular forms are supported by findings in Germanic, mainly (Beekes 1995). 5) The instrumental singular forms are difficult to reconstruct with the available data, but the dative is also often reconstructed as tosmei, along with tosmōi. Anaphoric pronouns Anaphora is an instance of an expression referring to another, the weak part of the deixis. In general, an anaphoric is represented by a pro-form or some kind of deictic. They usually don’t have adjectival use, and are only used as mere abbreviating substitutes of the noun. Old anaphorics were usually substituted in modern IE languages by demonstratives. They are usually integrated into the pronoun system with gender; only occasionally some of these anaphorics have been integrated into the personal pronouns system in Indo-European languages. Indo-European has a general anaphoric pronoun, is, ja/ī id, an olddemonstrative pronoun with basis on PIE root i- with ablaut ei-. PIE root i'''- is also the base for common relative jo-. Demonstrative '''is, ya/ī, id, with anaphoric value, “he/she/it”, in Italic (e.g. Lat. is, ea, id), Germanic (e.g. O.H.G. ir, er/iz, ez), Baltic (e.g. Lith. jìs/jì), Greek (e.g. Cypriot ín), Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. ay-ám, iyám, i-d-ám). The other demonstrative pronoun, so, sā, tod, functions as anaphoric too, but tends to appear leading the sentence, being its origin probably the relative. They are also used for the second term in comparisons. Demonstrative so, sā, tod is also widely attested in Celtic (e.g. O.Ir. -so/-d), Italic (e.g. Lat. is-te, is-ta, is-tud), Germanic (e.g. Goth. sa, sō, þata, O.Eng. sē, sēo, þæt, O.H.G. der, die, daz), Baltic (e.g. Lith. tàs, tà), Slavic (e.g. O.C.S. tŭ, ta, to), Alb. ai, ajo, Gk. ho, hē, tó, Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. sá, s , tát), Toch B se, sā, te, Arm. ay-d, Hitt. ta. Modern IE languages have sometimes mixed both forms to create a single system, while others maintain the old differentiation. is, ya, id, this one, that one ''(also used for ''he, she, it) Some emphatic forms exist; as, ejóm/eyóm for is, idóm for id; ijóm/iyóm for ja/ya. Distance degrees in demonstratives might be classified as follows: kos, kā, kod (also ghei-ke, ghāi-ke, ghod-ke), I-deixis, ‘this here’, oisos, oisā, oisom, thou-deixis, ‘this there’, general so, tod, sā, that-deixis; elne, elnā, elnod, yonder-deixis. Deictic particles which appear frequently with demonstrative pronouns include -ke/-ko-, here; -ne-/-no-, there; -wo-, away, again. For the personal pronouns of the third person singular and plural, the anaphoric i'''- is used. Deictic particles which appear frequently with demonstrative pronouns include -ke/-ko-, here; -ne-/-no-, there; -wo-, away, again. For PIE i-, se-, he, cf. Lat. is, O.Ind. saḥ, esaḥ, Hitt. apā, Goth. is, O.Ir. (h)í. For -ke/-ko-, in (e)ke, ghei-(ke), this (here), cf. Hitt. kās, eda (def.), Lat. hic (<*ghe-ike), Goth. hi-, sa(h), O.Ir. sin, O.C.S. sĭ, si, se, Lith. šìs, ši. For ke-enos, cf. Gk. keĩnos (<*ke-enos), O.N. hánn, hann, ‘he’; for au-, away, again, cf. Gk. houtos, O.Ind. a-sau, u-, Av. ava-, OCS. ovĭ…ovĭ. For se-, te-, in oi-se, is-te, ene, this (there), cf. Lat. iste, Gk. οιος (<*oihos), O.Ind. enam (clit.). Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive pronouns are used in the accusative and the oblique cases to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand, meaning ‘(one)self’. They do not have a nominative case, do not distinguish number, and can be used with any of the three persons. '''se, -self Particular IE languages show an old swoi and swe, cf. Gk. Lesb. ϝε. According to J.T. Katz precisely this swe is regarded as ancient and se as secondary. In contrast, G.E. Dunkel connects se/soi, which he considers more ancient, with the demonstrative pronoun so. The reciprocals one another, each other, were expressed like the distributives (v.s. §5.5.4), with the first member in the nominative, and the second in the accusative (or other oblique case); as, alyos alyom, onyos onyom, etc. Possessive pronouns From the bases of the personal pronouns, the oldest possessive pronouns were mos, mine, ṇsmós, ours, twos, thine, usmós, yours, swos, own. So e.g. in Gk. emós (<*h1mós), ammos, sós, ummos, hos, Av. ma-'', ''θwa-'', O.Ind. ''tva-''. Variants exist in tewós (as Gk. teϝós, Lat. tuus), sewós (as Gk. heϝós, Lat. suus), explained as neologisms, but “which may well be as early as Late PIE” (Sihler 1995). The common Late Indo-European possessives were formed from the same bases with suffixes -(i)jo- in the singular, -(t)ero- in the plural; as, '''méwiyos', menyos, my, ṇserós, our, téwiyos, thy, userós, your, séwiyos. For such common PIE forms, similar to the genitives of the personal pronouns, cf. Gk. ēméteros (<ṇsmé-tero-), uméteros (